The Illegitimacy Rate is Headed in One Direction... Up

Between 1750 and 1850 there was a significant rise in the number of illegitimate children. Why? It's quite simple. The rise in the illegitimacy rate was due to the rise of love. More and more people moved into the cities during this time period and thus met more people. Think of it as modern-day dating. If we went to a public high school then there would be a 100% chance of us interacting with boys our age, this would (hopefully) lead to dating. Now the problems start when there are say 300 boys and 400 girls in a given class. It is possible for every boy to be taken at one time. That's what the rural towns were like, you only had so many options.



Yep, that one would be you ^

 

 

Now let's imagine prom is coming up. What is a girl to do?! Every boy in the class already has a date! Don't sweat it, nowadays it's easy. Just sign up for a dating website (...or Tinder). With the click of a button you have increased your potential boyfriends/prom dates exponentially! We can equate that to the people in the nineteenth century moving into cities. Just a small town girl, who was living in a lonely world, took the midnight train and now she had a ton of eligible bachelors in the palm of her hand. She could weed out those who were not compatible and choose a potential husband.

 

Much better.

 

 

 

Now comes the rise of the illegitimacy rate. We're (mostly) all adults here so I'm just going to tell it like it is, people were having premarital sex. As we discussed in class everyone loved each other and everyone was loving each other. Methods of protection were not good during this era and that led to pregnancy and... wait for it... babies! When people began to live in closer quarters (cities) they stopped the whole 'shunning thing'. So what? She's not married and she's pregnant... could be worse. (Not the greatest logic but you get the idea)

By the 1840's one in three births occurred out of wedlock. So some of them got married. However, poverty and economic uncertainty was likely the cause for those who didn't wed.

The "Great Expectations" of the Social Classes

The Industrial Revolution brought not only a revolution in economics but also in society. Class distinctions and standards was revolutionized. There was no more aristocracy and poor people. Now there was a Middle Class and Working Class.

The Middle Class

Though the middle class seems like a wide term, it was split into three sections: the upper middle class, middle middle class, and the lower middle class. The upper middle class comprised of top banking, industrial, and commerce families. They displayed their great wealth and fortune with the amount of servants they had, summer houses, and clothing. Women especially became concerned about their clothing as a way to rank their wealth with others.

Below the upper middle class was the middle middle class. This group was much broader and more diversified. This group comprised of smaller yet successful industrialists and merchants, professional lawyers and doctors. On the bottom of this class, the lower middle class was made of shop keepers, small traders, and smaller manufacturers. The middle and lower middle class both made a considerably lower amount of money compared to the upper middle class.

Everyone in the middle class had similar ideas on how to "act" middle class. This included extravagant dinner parties, abstinence from drinking excessively, and good morals. The amount food and the amount of days per week one held a dinner party was a crucial point of middle class behaviors.

The working class

Below the middle class was the working class. The working class had three sections as well. This included the "labor aristocracy" of highly skilled workers, the semi skilled workers, and the unskilled workers. The labor aristocracy consisted of factory bosses and factory foremen. These men were excessively proud of their social status and acted that way. They held an almost puritanical attitude in order to act like the middle class. The majority of the working class stood in the semi-skilled and unskilled workers. Semi-skilled workers included carpenters, brick layers, and pipe fitters; jobs that needed some training prior to employment. The unskilled workers were servants and day laborers.
The working class participated in drinking, dancing, and sports as past-times. Music halls and bars were the new scene of the working class.

Pip in Great Expectations

With this new system of social hierarchy came the idea of class-consciousness. This was the idea that the people in the classes were fully aware the social standards of their class and the growing gap between classes such as between the middle and working class. This idea became influential to many writers of the time such as Charles Dickens. Dickens reflects this society in his novel, Great Expectations. Pip, a young country boy meets a girl of great money and standard. He is ashamed of being from such a low social order once he meets the great elegance and intelligence of Estella. Dickens uses Pip as a symbol of the working class and Estella as a symbol of the upper middle class. Many country people of the time moved to the city in search of financial and economic success (Pip finds success in the city with the help of a mysterious benefactor). The rest of the novel is his pursuit of both the love of his life, Estella, and higher social standings portraying the ultimate goal of many social climbing men of the Industrial Revolution.

Sanitation and Lack Thereof

Cities grew along with the Industrial Revolution and with them grew another problem: increasingly unsanitary living conditions in them. The growth of factories and industry meant that more and more people were living in cities. Naturally, these places became a hotbed for infection. People simply did not know the cause of disease in the early 1800s and as such did not take certain measures to prevent it, such as sewer systems and promotion of cleanliness. However, attitudes began to change as the problem grew to such a level that it could not be ignored.

One prime example of these changing times was London. It had grown from a town of one million to six million people over the course of the nineteenth century, and as such its lack of infrastructure began to show. Epidemics of cholera, typhus, and influenza were common without knowledge of how they spread or how to prevent them, let alone treat them. For example, in 1839, it was estimated that for every one person who died of old age or violence, eight died from disease caused by lack of sanitation. This problem particularly affected the lower working class, as they had to live quite literally in the worst of it. It is estimated the average age of laborers, mechanics, and servants at death was around fifteen. 

Edward Chadwick decided to help the British government to alleviate the problems caused by this lack of sanitation. In 1842, he wrote Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population which suggested the creation of a sewer system to remove waste from the streets. Finally, the Public Health Act was passed by Parliament in 1848 which allowed local towns to combat the disgusting conditions without permission from Parliament, which was incredibly difficult to obtain. This along with the creation of sewer systems ushered in an era aimed at better understanding and combating the filth.

Louis Pasteur

As mentioned earlier, people did not really understand what caused disease or how it spread. This began to change thanks to the work of Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister. Pasteur developed the idea of germ theory, that is that infections were caused by living organisms, not by bad odors as miasmatic theory suggested. His new idea allowed him to create pasteurization, which is the elimination of disease causing organisms in a beverage by heating it. 

Joseph Lister

Lister was famous for developing antiseptic procedures that made surgeries much more successful. Before Lister, doctors did not pay particular attention to the cleanliness of wounds, the operating room or their instruments.

The advances in sanitation and knowledge of how diseases spread resulted in the improvement of the methods to counteract them. In fact, by 1910 the death rates for people in urban areas were generally no greater than those for people in rural areas. 

'MURICA

Recently, we have been learning about various revolutions that have previously occurred throughout Europe, i.e, the French Revolution, the Greek Revolution, and the Revolutions of 1848. As you already know, these conflicts all revolved around unhappy things like starvation, poor people, and violence..things that make Maura sad. Now, I'm here to turn that frown upside down and to tell you that not all revolutions have to be unhappy. In fact, there was a revolution that began in Great Britain around the year 1760 that made everlasting marks in history...for the better! yay! Can you guess what it is?...Slowpoke has your answer.

Almost every aspect of daily life was changed or influenced in some way as a result of the rise of industry. In the 18th century, continental Europe was involved in constant warfare and revolution. As a result, Great Britain was able to pull ahead and to dominate the Industrial Revolution. Although there are many reasons for the growth of the British economy and industry, scholars agree that the industrial changes grew out of a long process of development. Three primary reasons for the rise of industry in Britain are...

1. The colonies. Britain was able to aggressively expand its economy through its strong colonial empire. Also, Britain's strong position in Latin America and the African Slave trade provided a growing market for manufactured goods. In the 1770s, Great Britain began to build canals, which allowed easy movement of resources and products domestically and throughout Europe. Additionally, the lack of tariffs facilitated and promoted trade.

2. Agriculture. Ironically, the perfection of farming and agriculture played a major role in boosting industry. A surplus of crops at low prices gave people the ability to provide food for their families and the free time to enhance manufactured goods. Unlike the French people during the French Revolution, an ordinary English family could actually afford a meager loaf of bread.

3. Stable government...another thing France would know nothing about. The monarchy and the aristocratic oligarchy of Britain provided a stable and predictable government since 1688. This government allowed the domestic economy to operate freely and encouraged a free market. (yay for Adam Smith!)

Like the American Industrial Revolution, the first breakthrough in the British Revolution was with the cotton textile industry. There was a constant shortage of thread in the textile industry, which encouraged people to think of ways to improve spinning. Hargreaves's spinning jenny and Arkwright's water frame did just that. By producing a greater supply of thread in a less amount time, cotton goods became much cheaper and were bought by all the classes. Now, even poor people could afford the luxury of underwear! (no more going commando)

Britain realized the great value of its discoveries and inventions. Therefore, the British tried to keep their secrets and ideas within the union of Great Britain...until William Cockerill came around. He brought British industrial ideas, plans, and secrets to Belgium, which remained in 2nd place to Britain in terms of levels of industrialization "per capita" until 1880. Eventually, however, the United States topples both countries and rises to the top in industry...why?

Because we're 'Murica

Do you hear the people sing? Singing the song of angry men?

France, in the early 1800's, can be related quite accurately to Les Miserables! (Even though the time periods are not quite parallel). After Napoleon was banished to a far away island, Louis XVIII took over reinstating family monarchy. Louis was much like Marius. Louis was the most liberal ruler just as Marius had been. While Marius was pressured to join the barricade rebels instead of going after Cossette (so sad!), Louis was being pressured to create the Constitutional Charter in 1814 (also not a good thing).

Because of Marius's and Louis's doubts of position, Marius was temporarily disliked by his friends and almost died and Louis was unstable with his personal opinions on ruling and eventually fled France out of cowardice! However, they both did more for the people than for themselves.


Then comes Charles X, also portrayed as Javert! What a pleasant fellow...
Like Javert, Charles was completely conservative. While Javert continually chased after Val Jean for "justice" (actually punishment), Charles took away the rights of all the revolutionaries. Eventually though, both people could not handle the heat of the rebellion. Javert killed himself to escape Val Jean and Charles fled once the people revolted. Outwardly they were harsh, but on the inside they were cowards.

After Charles's reign comes Louis Phillipe! Also known as Valjean. Val Jean did not thoroughly participate in the barricade revolt, but obviously also didn't side with Javert. Likewise, Louis Phillipe is the in between conservative and radical. Val Jean eventually faced his fears of Javert. Louis Phillipe faced his fears as well by not fleeing.

He may have been better off fleeing though, for the Revolution of 1848 had started!

The Revolution involved France, Austria, and Prussia. It started in France but then the ideas of revolution spread to Austria and Prussia. Just as Marius and his worker/poor crew fought for their rights, France, Austria, and Prussia all started with middle class/worker revolts for rights. They all had ideas for freedom and liberty.

Their dreams may not have changed the world but they did change the form of government in each country.

• France: Monarchy to republic
• Austria: Monarchy to representative government
• Prussia: Monarchy to constitutional monarchy

However, everything went completely haywire. Every country began another revolution inside the main fight for liberation! (Luckily nothing happened like this is Les Mis...the movie didn't need to be any more heart wrenched)  

• France was made up of the moderate republicans and the radical republicans. At first they were in agreement but once voting rights were passed, the moderates betrayed them. It was no longer a war of freedom but a war between the classes and their desires.
• Austria had a similar dilemma. People were in unison, but then the conservative aristocrats revolted against the workers and urban poor.
• Prussia became involved in a war between Denmark over land control. It was a war amidst a revolt.

It was chaotic, it was violent, it was revolution.

Last but not least, all the countries failed in their attempts for liberty and new government just as Marius's crew all died at the barricades.

• France: Louis Napoleon took control after government, army, and peasantry crushed the revolt.
• Austria: Archduchess Sophia and aristocrats squelched the revolt. Francis Joseph became emperor.
• Prussia: Frederick William asserted his authority, shut down the Constituent Assembly, and created a conservative constitution (not what people wanted).

All in all, the rulers after Napoleon were very unstable as well as the revolts in each country. Eventually everything ended in failure.



         

Thanks for reading! Sorry it was super long.

A Tale of the Toolish Tories and the Wowing Whigs

Throughout the 18th century, England had been stable, but controlled by the aristocracy. Furthermore, Parliament was controlled by the King, making the entire government undemocratic. Because very few had suffrage, the English sought reform by the end of the century. However, reform was a slow process as the aristocracy feared change after witnessing the chaos of the French Revolution.

Two conservative and prominent political parties were present at the this time, the Tories and the Whigs:

 Tories:

• Land-owning aristocrats
• The more conservative of the two
• Extremely fearful of radical movements at home or abroad 

• Supported suppression of any popular movement:
• Corn Laws (1815)
• Regulated foreign grain trade, an essential societal commodity   
• Laws had existed previous to this time, but were not necessary because England could not import grain from Eastern Europe while at war with France. 
• Grain production became a prominently domestic task, controlled entirely by the land-owning aristocracy (Tories). 
• The demand for grain exceeded the supply, forcing prices to rise. 
• When war ended, cheaper importation of grain was possible, benefiting all but the aristocracy (selfish tools).  
• Therefore, they regulated the Corn Laws to prohibit the "importation of foreign grain unless the price at home rose to improbable levels"(really selfish tools, probably dull too).  
• For example, according to Maria, possibly, a million dollars per stalk of grain.

See, no one looks happy

·       The regulation of the Corn Laws caused unemployment and, subsequently, protests. 

o   The Tories attempted to curb this mild disruption by

§  Suspending habeas corpus and right of peaceable assembly

§  Passing the Six Acts, which placed controls on a taxed press and eliminated mass meetings.

§  A relatively peaceful protest, referred to as the Battle of Peterloo, was broken up by cavalry.

§  Expressed government’s ability and desire to repress their revolts.

·       Newly wealthy manufacturing groups, who sought political power, called for liberal reform of the town government, police force, rights for Catholics, and of Poor Laws.

·       The Tories began to turn over a new leaf, or cob of corn, if you will, and incited some liberal changes in terms of urban administration, economic liberalism (yay), and equality for Catholics.

o   They replaced the prohibition of grain trade with a higher, yet more manageable, tariff. So the cob was turned maybe 90 degrees, as opposed to 180, but change was happening.

·       Corn Laws were repealed in 1846 by the Tory Prime Minister, Robert Peel (a sharper, corn-loving tool?).

“Thanks, Peel”

o   England avoided famine, and economic liberalism became engrained in English society.

·       The Ten Hours Act of 1847 limited working hours for women and children in factories to ten hours (how generous).

·       The Tories had officially turned over their cob of corn in order to gain support from the middle and low classes.

Whigs

• ·       Aristocratic and conservative
• ·       More in tuned to manufacturing and commerce than the Tories

·       Unlike the Tories, they were supportive of liberal reform (wow):

o   Proposed “an act to amend the representation of England and Wales”

§  Passed by the House of Commons, rejected by the House of Lords

§  When the Whigs gained enough public support to back the movement, it was passed by the House of Lords, representing the increasing importance of popular protest.

o   Reform Bill of 1832

§  House of Commons became an independent legislative body

§  Industrial areas gained representation in the Commons (woah)

§  “Rotten boroughs”, or electoral districts controlled by certain aristocrats, were eliminated (places probably controlled by the tools).

§  12% of the male population in England and Ireland could now vote (wow).

§  Middle-class urban men and some substantial farmers who leased their land could vote

§  Reform Bill showed that reform could be made peacefully (wow, finally).

Whigs for the reformation win

o   People’s Charter of 1838 (the Charterists) called for:

§  Universal male suffrage (but not women of course)

§  Complete democracy

§  Parliament rejected three suffrage petitions

Homework 2/10

These should be a paragraph each.

1.  Why is the revolution of Greece the catalyst for change in the congress of Vienna?

2. Is nationalism more revolutionary than liberalism during this time?

3.  Socialism: another example of French misguided foolishness?

4.  Why is mass politics becoming important?

Also, we need to get "Paddy's Lament, Ireland 1846-1847: Prelude to Hatred Paperback– May 13, 1987" by Thomas Gallagher ASAP

TEST ON WEDNESDAY 2/12! Up to page 777

Turn in all but post one in the comments here. (Taylor #1 Maura #2 Katie #3)

Napoleon... The Later Years

While many people would argue that Napoleon’s greatest failure was his invasion of Russia, we know that it was in fact his invasion of Spain. Napoleon felt that the Spanish people would seize the opportunity he provided them with and revolt against their government. He couldn’t have been more wrong. Napoleon felt that is was impossible for anyone to want to live in their own country more than France. Anyway, the Spanish did not join Napoleon’s forces and the war dragged on for quite some time. Many pieces of art came from this period, notably the Third of May seen below.

 

Napoleon was basically the poster child for Nationalism. He believed that France was the “créme de la créme” and could not fathom anyone who didn’t want to be French. His thirst for national unity and a more land led him to annoy much of Europe. They say that nothing unites like a common enemy and unfortunately for Napoleon, this proved to be very, very true. Napoleon fought, but in the end he lost and was exiled to the island of Elba.

 

 

When the allies (Most of Europe) striped Napoleon of his imperial power, they named Louis XVIII to be the leader. He was considered to be a legitimate leader, Napoleon was not. This leads us to the two main guiding principles of the Congress of Vienna. Legitimacy and stability, the former refers to the balance of power, the latter to a focus on hereditary succession of power. As you may have noticed, the Congress of Vienna didn’t go all “Treaty of Versailles” on France. They figured that Napoleon was to blame for the country’s wrongdoings and just punished him. The Congress felt exiling him would solve the problems he caused, but they did not anticipate that he would one day return…