"What were the general domestic political trends that emerged after 1871?"

• In Europe after 1871 there were several common themes in domestic politics, especially the emergence of mass politics and growing popular loyalty toward the nation. New pragmatic politicians were able to use social reforms (public health benefits, welfare, free education, etc.) to appease growing Marxist movements and to gain support from the working-class members of society.

How did these trends manifest themselves in the different European nations?

German Empire

• The German Empire adopted a union of Prussia and 24 smaller states that each had separate legislatures. Although the states did most of the business of government, there was a strong national government that was led by Bismarck until 1890. During this time, the German Empire had to deal with two mass political parties that became threats to national power- the Catholic Church (Catholic Center Party)and the German Social Democratic Party.
• Catholic Church and the Center Party
• Pope Pius IX declared Papal Infallibility in 1870 - the Catholic Church (the Pope) could never be wrong.  Bismarck was concerned that people would put their church above their country, so he began Kulturkampf (an attack on the Catholic Church). After failing to gain support from the large Catholic Center party, he abandoned his attack on the Catholic Church and instead "courted" them. Bismarck exemplifies the pragmatic leadership that was common to this time. He realized that the large Catholic Center political party would not agree to his anti-Catholic laws, so he appeased them by revoking free-trade.
• German Social Democratic Party
• Just as the Catholic Church threatened the nation's power, the growing Marxist movements throughout Germany became a domestic issue that Bismarck had to deal with. At first, he attempted stop the SDP by forcing anti-socialist laws through the Reichstag. When this failed to end the SDP's influence, he decided to win over the middle class by creating social welfare programs.  Bismarck was able to address the issues of the working-class to diffuse some of the Marxist movements and stop the growth of the SDP. In addition to quieting the radical socialist movement, he was able to win popular support and loyalty as people enjoyed the benefits of the social security laws.
• In 1890, however, Wilhelm II took over and forced Bismarck to resign. He failed at getting people to renounce socialism and the SDP took control of the Reichstag. This ultimately lessened the radical movements as the SDP was content to have such a huge influence in state legislature. This gave way to patriotic growth that led up to the First World War. 

Republican France

• After the Franco-Prussian War, France was forced to surrender Alsace and Larraine to Germany. This sparked patriot rioting in Paris which led to the formation of the Paris Commune. The radical socialists demanded workplace reforms and separation of church and state. Eventually, Adolphe Thiers (the leader of the National Assembly), ordered the French army into Paris and the commune was destroyed.  In the years that followed, France was actually able to regain national unity. How?
• France retained its republican government, which Thiers described as "the government which divides us least," due to the National Assembly's inability to find a new king. France's success when stopping the commune convinced the provinces that France could be politically moderate and socially conservative.
• Moderate republican leaders were able to win over the next generation by legalizing trade unions and expanding the colonial empire.
• School system was expanded and by 1866 free, secular education was available to all children.
• Even French Catholics, who were frustrated with the division of church and state, rallied to support the republic in the 1890s.
• Education was used as a state-building tool and could create future supporters of a republican France.
• There were still tensions between conservatives and liberals. These tensions resulted in the Dreyfus Affair. A Jewish captain in the French army was falsely accused of treason and the case split France apart, with conservative nationalists and Catholics on one side and republican liberals on the other.
• This renewed fighting between France and the Catholic Church. By 1905 France had severed all ties with the Church, which led to increased secularism in schools and life.
• As in the German Empire, socialist movements and political divides threatened the stability of the Third Republic of France; however, the leaders of France were not as successful at using these movements to their advantage and tensions remained.

Great Britain and Ireland

• During the late nineteenth century, Britain was able to transform their government from classical liberalism to full-fledged democracy with few problems. Prime Minister Disraeli extended the vote to almost every adult male by 1884. 

"A Leap in the Dark"
Disraeli did not know what the ramifications of extending the vote would be and he is pictured here as leading Britannia into the unknown.
• As the House of Commons moved towards democracy, the House of Lords attempted to stop these changes. The conservative House of Lords vetoed several attempts to create social welfare services and legalized labor unions.  Eventually, they were forced to yield to popular democracy after being threatened by the king. The People's Budget was ultimately passed, raising taxes on the rich and providing health insurance and pensions to the masses.
• Just before WWI, Ireland caused a lot of issues for Great Britain. Radical "Fenians," who strongly opposed British rule, began violent campaigns against the British. Eventually Britain granted rights for peasants and ended the privileges of the Anglican Church. The issue of self-government in Ireland remained.
• Ulster Protestants refused to accept home rule by mostly-Catholic Ireland. They raised an army of over one hundred thousand volunteers and were able to delay the question of Irish home rule until after WWI was over. This issue exemplified the power of national feeling in the 19th century. If governments were not able to use the nationalist movements to their advantage, they could not win popular support.

Austro-Hungarian Empire

• In 1867, Austria was ruled by a dual monarchy comprised of the Austrian Empire and the Hungarian Empire.
• The issue of ethnic minorities caused a lot of national problems. Franz Joseph, the emperor, attempted to centralize the state an culture but struggled due to the various cultures and the stark division between the Magyar Hungarians and the rest of Austria (which was also divided ethnically and culturally).
• In Austria, Germans only comprised 1/3 of the population. They viewed the other ethnicities as a threat to their traditional power. Conservatives and socialists attempted to focus on economic issues and ignored the problem of race and language. State legislature could not decide on what to do, so Austria was ruled by decree.
• Nationalism in the Austro-Hungarian Empire ultimately hurt them. While other European countries were able to use nationalism to their advantage, Austro-Hungary was too divided