Class 1/31/18

Why were the Papal States the last?

Napoleon III of France had many Catholic supporters. Therefore, the people of France would not have been happy if their country essentially went to war with the Pope. This could have possibly lead to the Catholics in France wanting war with Italy. War on Italy could have been detrimental to the unification of Italy at this point in time because the Italian states are struggling enough as it is just to unify themselves. They could not have afforded to put energy and focus into anything other than the completion of Italian unification. This is why the Pope's Papal states were last- because the figures trying to unify Italy did not want to risk angering anyone that could have resulted in the destruction, or at least halting, of Italian unification. 

"The great question of the day will not be decided by speeches and resolutions- that was the blunder of 1848 and 1849- but by blood and iron."

Bismarck is simply stating that the unification of Italy was not going to happen through the usage of words and making peaceful agreements with other nations. They must be aggressive and literally fight for what they want- which are the remaining Italian states in order to fully achieve Italian unification. 


Bismarck(gyarn thinks at least) thinks that one should always have "2 irons in the fire"

He is basically saying that one must always be prepared and expect the unexpected. One must have multiple plans in case the original one fails. There are usually multiple ways to achieve your goal, so have them in mind and ready to use because it is likely that one will have to adjust accordingly. 

There were 3 major wars which had to take place in order for Germany to unify... 

The first was with Denmark. Austria allies with Prussia and defeats Denmark. Bismarck is very manipulative with Austria as he utilizes them during this war but soon turns against them.

The second was the Austro-Prussian War. The Bismarck led Prussia turned against their former ally- Austria, and defeated them. Prussia gave Austria very lenient peace terms which later paid off for Bismarck. 

The third and most important war in regards to German unification was that of the Franco-Prussian War. "Bismarck calculated that a patriotic war with France would drive the south German states into his arms." So, Bismarck intercepted a telegraph and made it sound like the French were insulting the German people. He enlisted Austria to help and Napoleon III was defeated. Very harsh terms were given to Germany. This created a very bad relationship between Germany and France for the future. 

Taming of the German Parliament 

Bismarck basically ignored everything everyone else was saying. Ultimate power rested in the hands of the Prussian king and army. 

Revolutions of 1848 and Italian Unification

Why did the revolutions of 1848 fail? 

• The downfall of the three revolutions of 1848 was the division between revolutionaries. Revolutionaries came from varying social groups and each had his own interests at heart. When it came down to it, people were unwilling to put the needs of others before their own and they were unwilling to compromise. The initial successes of the revolutions were cancelled out by the infighting which meant that there were no legislative successes resulting from any of the revolutions. 

Why did the French revolution of 1830 fail?

Charles X was a pear #confirmed

• The middle class were able to bring down the government of Charles X and cause him to abdicate his throne. However, in the long run, this revolution accomplished nothing. The French people called for reforms but they were unsuccessful in their attempts because for the most part, France had been perfectly fine before Charles X, and Louis Philippe returned France to this state. He did not make any improvements upon what Louis XVIII had done, but he did abandon all elements of Charles X's rule.

Italian Unification

• There were three prominent ideas for unification: 
• Mazzini called for a centralized democracy with universal male suffrage
• He was radical and way ahead of his time
• Gioberti was a Catholic who favored a federation of states which would be ruled by the pope
• The church actually made unification much more difficult than it needed to be because it controlled the Papal States, a sovereign nation in the middle of Italy
• Victor Emmanuel II was a king who was well-liked by many Italians. They wanted him to rule a federation of states. 



Giuseppe Garibaldi, who worked with Cavour, led the "Red Shirts" in an invasion of Sicily

• In the end, this wound up being the best method. Victor Emmanuel II worked with Cavour to unite Italy (Cavour did the fighting/uniting, Victor Emmanuel II did the ruling)
• The Italian revolution was a revolution from above
• It was primarily led by Cavour, Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel II, three very powerful men. This revolution came from the government, and while ordinary people were involved in it, they were the soldiers who did the bidding of Cavour, Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel II. There were no mass peasant uprisings, and unlike in the French Revolution, an entire socio-economic class did not take over the government. Many older governments were consolidated into one new government which was ruled by the same people who always ruled it, and these were the people who did the revolting. 

Romantics and Revolutions

Revolutions and Romanticism

Romanticism was a growing movement that spread throughout Europe from the late 18th Century until the mid 19th century. It strayed from Enlightenment beliefs of rationalism and secularism and emphasized the importance of spontaneity and emotion. It makes sense that Romanticism did well during this time, especially with the revolutions occurring throughout Europe. Many working-class people were frustrated with the conservative practices in Europe and were being oppressed by a self-serving group of elites. 

Delacroix's The Massacre at Chios

From the textbook: “Beethoven’s music sets in motion the lever of fear, of awe, of horror, of suffering, and awakens just that infinite longing which is the essence of Romanticism."
People were longing for change and freedom.

Romanticism is reflected in the events that took place in Greece, Great Britain, Ireland, and France after 1815. 

• Greek nationalists, wanting to separate themselves from the Ottoman Empire, began fighting for their freedom. Initially, conservative leaders wanting to maintain the balance of power refused to help. The elite class of Europe, however, loved classical Greece and convinced their rulers to assist the Greeks. The Greeks appealed to the elites' emotions and were able to find support.

• In Great Britain, a frustrated working-class was being taken advantage of by the upper class elite. Landowners selfishly pushed the Corn Laws through Parliament, which artificially raised the price of grain in Great Britain. The oppressed lower class in England demanded change, but instead they were given the Six Acts, which further limited their ability to address the issues by controlling the press and prohibiting mass meetings of people. The lower class banded together along with the help of radical elites at the Battle of Peterloo. While the Chartists were unable to make huge changes, male suffrage increased and the Corn Laws were repealed and replaced with intense free trade ideologies. Romanticism is fitting; the working-class longed for change and revolution and was frustrated with selfish nature of the upper class. 

• Ireland also shared some Romantic elements. Irish Catholic tenant farmers being taken advantage of by Protestant landowners living in England were frustrated with their living situation. When the Potato Famine hit and over 1.5 million Irish farmers starved, their frustration grew into bitter resentment of their British counterparts. They demanded change and Irish patriots called on the collective emotional memories of all those who survived the famine to garner support for their cause. 

• France's continued political struggle also fits into Romanticism. Charles X disregarded the Constitutional Charter and revoked the peoples' rights to freedom of the press and freedom of assembly. A frustrated lower-class rioted and overthrew Charles X and replaced him with Louis Philippe. Despite all of their efforts, the working-class revolutionaries saw no practical change and remained frustrated with the current political system in France.

On a side note... socialism and 3 French Utopian dudes.

What is socialism? How is Romanticism reflected in this idea?

• Socialist theory began with 3 French Utopian Socialists who generally argued that work was the foundation of society and therefore workers should be rewarded. In a general sense, socialism makes everyone do equal work for equal reward. 
• Charles Fourier wanted to create "Phalanxes," or communities of 1620 people where work was divided equally and land was owned by the community.
• Saint-Simon believed that the proletariat were "Doers" who should reap the most rewards for their hard work. He called the bourgeoisie "parasites" who leeched off of the efforts of the working-class. 
• Louis Blanc believed that work should be the most sacred right for man and that the government should set up public work opportunities in order to preserve this right.
• All three of these early utopian socialists fit into the Romantic movement. They represent the frustrated lower class and gain support by appealing to the anger and bitterness of the oppressed workers. 

1/9 class

• Radicals are done with conservatism- elite group
• 3 things
• Socialism- social equality, most willing to revolt in unity to get it
• Yes, they want more power than they currently have
• Don’t want to reform→ replace
• (most important) Marxist Socialism
• Wants to replace Capitalism with Communism
• Believed capitalism is unfair
• Bourgeois takes advantage of Proletariat which causes inequality
• Nationalism
• 
• How is nationalism created?
• Banded together over common culture and
• In Hapsburg empire, the minorities want to be their own nation
• The Germanic states and Spain had nationalism that was created
• Fervor- people got excited about relating to their fellow country men especially after the napoleonic wars and they were united culturally
• the nationalist fervor just wanted to define those “imagined communities” of people who were culturally and linguistically similar

• Liberalism
• A “dull tool”
• It is radical for its time
• Radical to Metternich, he fears liberalism and tries to prevent it
• Why is it the least radical of the 3?
• Wants to change society completely
• The imagined communities
• Ethnic parades and celebrations occurred to boost nationalism
• Karl Marxismn
• Thought nationalism was an opiate (similar to religion)
• Socialism is more radical because nationalism is social and cultural where marxism is more of an economic change even though national and social parts to it too

Class 1/3 + 1/8

Who is this Napoleon guy??

• Napoleon was a successful war general who created the 1st Empire of France. Despite not being from France, he is uber French. Because he had a strong personality, he was able to get a lot done... 

Metternich's 2 ideas: legitimacy + stability

• Metternich is super conservative. He quells his fears through the usage of legitimacy and stability. Legitimacy refers to the hereditary monarch which has existed. Because he fears change and defends the elite class and their rights, he favors the monarchy. He also wanted stability by establishing peace. The Quadruple Alliance was easy on France because the ultimate goal was to achieve peace and put an end to fighting. But, in order to establish peace, there must be a balance of power between the Great Powers(Russia, Prussia, Austria, France, Great Britain). And, in order to maintain this peace, no powers can allow the actions of any single power to change this balance of power. 
• The Congress of Troppau in 1820 allowed for active intervention. Active intervention ensures legitimacy and stability. 
• Ex. Greeks revolting against Ottoman overlords--> have to decide whether to support Greeks or the legitimate ruler. 

"Massacre at Chios"- depicts mistreatment of Greeks 

By: Eugene Delacroix 

• Metternich sees the French Revolution as an example of how the balance can be messed up as a result of people having changing, different opinions. 
• "No liberty, fraternity, or equality"
• The Karlsbad Decree basically took away these liberties from the people in order to uphold Metternich's conservatism. 

• Metternich hates liberalism --> its "doubly dangerous"
• Liberalism leads to change. Change will upset the balance. The people cannot feel like their opinions matter because people are too prone to error. 
• Liberalism leads to the want for national independence. Sections of a single empire cannot have so many differing opinions. There will be no unity among an empire if this were to happen, according to Metternich.

"Liberty Leading the People"- lady is the focal point

By: Eugene Delacroix                         

"The 3rd of May"- guy in yellow is the Christ-like figure 

**Last 2 paintings are of revolutions --> neither are successful