• 2/26 Class
• Luddites- Group of handicraft workers who attacked factories in northern England in 1811 and later, smashing the new machines that they believed were putting them out of work.
• Are there luddites today?
• Yes there are people who don’t like technology
• Why are the luddites angry at the machines?
• They were taking their jobs 
• Citizens, globalization ruined the US because we don’t manufacture as much
• Living standards for the working class were bad
• How did they respond to the “grossness” of the cities?
• 1848 Britain’s first public health law was passed and they began to have proper sanitation 
• Utilitarianism- by Bentham 
• Based in the belief “greatest good for the greatest number”
• 22.1 graph- as things became cleaner the amount of people dying declined, but wars and famines caused increases but there was a steady decline
• 
• Germ theory- the idea that disease was caused by the spread of living organisms that could be controlled, invented by Louis Pasteur (invented pasteurization)
• Miasmatic theory- though that someone could get sick from inhaling environmental fumes but it’s wrong
• Rebuilding Paris
• The way the city was designed now had wider streets and parks were built
• It is important because there were more ways of public transportation
• Expropriation- taking away someone’s house to build something in its place
• They would be given money to move out of their house so they could put a highway or a park

Communism

Karl Marx and the Communist Manifesto

Did Marx hearken back to better times? Was there something wrong with the time that he was living in?

Marx opens the Communist Manifesto by explaining the class struggles that have existed since the Middle Ages. In the feudal system, there were several different classes in which a person could find themselves doing meaningful work. Guild-masters, apprentices, and journeymen were all paid for their craft. The new proletariat, which is paid for its time instead of its skill, has lost all of its character and pride. Instead of working towards creating something, the proletariat becomes a part of the machine. 

Proletariat: the ones producing things (workers)
Bourgeoisie: controls the means of production

During the Industrial Revolution, the social and economic divides between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat became wider. Increased economic globalization offered markets into which the bourgeoisie could expand and consolidate their power. The Communist Manifesto is largely a response to these changes. Marx was appalled by the worsening conditions of the urban laborers during the Industrial Revolution and communism is his proposed solution.  


Did he want everyone to be equal?
The Communist Manifesto does explain how economic equality is important, but it does not explicitly say that all people should be equal. Its main intention is toppling the bourgeoisie's power and redistributing it to the people who actually produce stuff (the proletariat). He does not want perfect equality, he just wants the efforts of the working-class to be recognized fairly. 

Why does Hannah think they're terrorists?
During the cold war, communism was targeted by the United States. Propaganda was spread throughout the country and the echoes of the anti-communist campaign still remain today.

Class 2/15

The Industrial Revolution was unprecedented and no one really knew what to expect... 

What were David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus saying? 

David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus were essentially saying the same thing. They both warned against the effects of the growing population in Great Britain. However, both were proven wrong because industrialization drastically improved productivity. 

Malthus argued that "a rapid growth in population would lead to disaster" because there will no longer be enough resources available for everyone. The common person is just beginning to get used to having a little extra as wages have increased. Increased wages allowed for many to afford these extra purchases in contrast to spending all their money on only necessities. Malthus theorizes that if men and women marry later in their lives, this would result in a smaller number of children. However, his theory was not put into practice by enough people to have the lasting effect he had hoped for. 

Ricardo had a very similar mindset about population growth as Malthus. He proposed the Iron Law of Wages which stated that if the population continued to grow, everyones wages would drop. Right now, the wages for workers are high. Wages will sink as a result of the rising population because people become more expendable and there is less dependence on human work as factories become industrialized. Ricardo's thoughts are theory but he also attempted to put his theory into practice through the Iron Law of Wages. 


So about this level of industrialization graph...

(I tried to insert the graph here but as you all know I'm technologically challenged and couldn't do it... refer to section called "National and International Variations" for graph...) 

Basically, all the countries on the graph are being compared to Great Britain, who kicked off the Industrial Revolution. The graph depicts how most of the countries were slow to adopt Great Britain's technologies in the beginning, especially, which allowed Great Britain to keep a substantial lead for a while. Eventually, some countries picked it up while a couple went backwards. However, the rate of industrialization is different for each country. For example, the United States increased the fastest, followed by Germany. On the other hand, France was pretty slow but eventually made some progress. Great Britain lost their lead when people started sneaking out of the country and spreading their technological knowledge. 








What helped industrialization to spread?

(1) The banks: There are more investors in the bank who are not responsible for paying the money back to the bank if their investments fail(limited liability) so the bank is much more willing to lend out money to people. 
(2) The government: High tariffs protect domestic industry by essentially encouraging their citizens to buy goods from the country which they are in instead of from outside countries. 
(3) Entrepreneurs: John Cockerel built a center for people to gather and transmit industrial information in Belgium. This helped information to spread- the more people who are knowledgable about the subject,the faster industrialization will spread. 







Did the government respond to the child labor issues?

Yes, the Factory Acts were passed and well enforced. The Factory Acts limited the number of hours children of certain ages could work and also implemented hygiene and safety requirements.The fact that the number of child workers decreased dramatically is proof that these Acts were well enforced by the government.  

Beginning of the Industrial Revolution

How is the Industrial Revolution related to previous improvements in England (putting-out system, cottage industry, enclosure movement)?

• The Industrial Revolution stemmed from the increased production rates due to the changes brought about by proto-industrialization. More food was being produced, which led to population increase. Farming also became more efficient thanks to the enclosure movement and new technologies, which meant that less people needed to be doing agricultural work and could instead work in new factories. The increased population also meant that there were more workers available for new factories as well. 
• The Industrial Revolution was a natural continuation of prior movements. People were already moving towards being wage-earners instead of simply growing food for subsistence, and the Industrial Revolution moved this along even more.

• The population began to increase with cottage industries but dramatically increased when the Industrial Revolution began.
• This population growth hurt members of the lower classes, because, according to Thomas Malthus, increased populations cause the spread of famine and disease. David Ricardo took it further by saying that although wages were currently high, the pressures of population growth mean that wages will never truly rise above the subsistence level.

Why did the Industrial Revolution begin in Britain? Why weren't they able to contain it there?

• Britain had many qualities that made it the perfect place for the Industrial Revolution to begin, including:
• Workers were well-paid, so they could afford to buy manufactured goods and basic luxuries instead of just food and necessities. Because more people were buying these goods, they had to be produced on a wider-scale. The Industrial Revolution provided the answer
• Geographically, Britain is full of canals and rivers. At this time, it was easier to transport goods over water than it was over land. The ubiquity of water meant that raw materials could be transported to factories, and that manufactured goods could be transported and shipped. 

• This map shows the canals and navigable rivers that were key to not only transporting goods but to powering early factories. It also shows where goods were being transported from. 
• Britain encouraged intellectualism and a collaborative nature within these innovators. People were driven to create new ways to produce goods, and they felt that they had an obligation to share their new ideas. 
• Britain had some of the most advanced agricultural technologies in the world at this time. These advancements allowed more people to stop working in the fields and instead work in new factories. 
• The British state had a heavy hand in its policies. It created high tariffs to discourage Brits from importing goods and instead encouraged them to buy British manufactured goods. 
• The Industrial Revolution did not, however, stay in Great Britain because people were inspired by the innovations in Britain. People in other countries saw the quasi-monopoly that Britain held in various markets of manufactured goods. People wanted to seize the opportunities presented by the Industrial Revolution to earn more money by improving upon new technologies and constantly improving. 

What are three key technological changes/inventions of the time? Why are they key? What ties them together?

1. Spinning jenny, water frame, & mule



This chart compares the amounts of cotton consumed in Great Britain and the export of cotton from Great Britain before and during the Industrial Revolution.

• Spinning jennys were operated by women and children, making them efficient workers
• The spinning jenny produced finer thread than the water frame, but the jenny required manual labor and the water frame did not. However, the jenny produced finer thread than the water frame. Factories that used water frames had to then put the thread through a spinning jenny. The mule was invented to solve this problem. It combined the best elements of the jenny and the water frame to produce a more efficient machine. 
• These inventions improved Britain's position in the textile industry and made them more competitive in international markets. 
2. Steam-powered transportation (trains and steamboats)
• The first train, the Rocket, was invented in this period. Trains quickly became financial and technological successes and spread throughout Europe and the rest of the world
• Trains reduced the cost and uncertainty associated with freight shipping over land which allowed markets to expand
• Steamboats also transformed water travel, making it easier and safer as well.
3. Steam engine
• Steam engines replaced the use of wood to power machines. This allowed people to harness the power of a more abundant resource than wood, which was being rapidly consumed by iron production. 

• These inventions were key to the Industrial Revolution as it would not have been as widespread or successful without them. Cotton production would not have been revolutionized without the invention of the spinning jenny or the water frame which in turn would have delayed the creation of factories. Without steam-powered transportation, the newly manufactured goods could not be transported to new markets, and raw materials could not be brought to factories. Steam engines are yet another example of technological improvements that happened during the Industrial Revolution because of necessity.
• These three inventions were what made the Industrial Revolution so large and impactful. They increased the amount of goods that could be produced and made it easier and safer to transport said goods to new markets.

"What were the general domestic political trends that emerged after 1871?"

• In Europe after 1871 there were several common themes in domestic politics, especially the emergence of mass politics and growing popular loyalty toward the nation. New pragmatic politicians were able to use social reforms (public health benefits, welfare, free education, etc.) to appease growing Marxist movements and to gain support from the working-class members of society.

How did these trends manifest themselves in the different European nations?

German Empire

• The German Empire adopted a union of Prussia and 24 smaller states that each had separate legislatures. Although the states did most of the business of government, there was a strong national government that was led by Bismarck until 1890. During this time, the German Empire had to deal with two mass political parties that became threats to national power- the Catholic Church (Catholic Center Party)and the German Social Democratic Party.
• Catholic Church and the Center Party
• Pope Pius IX declared Papal Infallibility in 1870 - the Catholic Church (the Pope) could never be wrong.  Bismarck was concerned that people would put their church above their country, so he began Kulturkampf (an attack on the Catholic Church). After failing to gain support from the large Catholic Center party, he abandoned his attack on the Catholic Church and instead "courted" them. Bismarck exemplifies the pragmatic leadership that was common to this time. He realized that the large Catholic Center political party would not agree to his anti-Catholic laws, so he appeased them by revoking free-trade.
• German Social Democratic Party
• Just as the Catholic Church threatened the nation's power, the growing Marxist movements throughout Germany became a domestic issue that Bismarck had to deal with. At first, he attempted stop the SDP by forcing anti-socialist laws through the Reichstag. When this failed to end the SDP's influence, he decided to win over the middle class by creating social welfare programs.  Bismarck was able to address the issues of the working-class to diffuse some of the Marxist movements and stop the growth of the SDP. In addition to quieting the radical socialist movement, he was able to win popular support and loyalty as people enjoyed the benefits of the social security laws.
• In 1890, however, Wilhelm II took over and forced Bismarck to resign. He failed at getting people to renounce socialism and the SDP took control of the Reichstag. This ultimately lessened the radical movements as the SDP was content to have such a huge influence in state legislature. This gave way to patriotic growth that led up to the First World War. 

Republican France

• After the Franco-Prussian War, France was forced to surrender Alsace and Larraine to Germany. This sparked patriot rioting in Paris which led to the formation of the Paris Commune. The radical socialists demanded workplace reforms and separation of church and state. Eventually, Adolphe Thiers (the leader of the National Assembly), ordered the French army into Paris and the commune was destroyed.  In the years that followed, France was actually able to regain national unity. How?
• France retained its republican government, which Thiers described as "the government which divides us least," due to the National Assembly's inability to find a new king. France's success when stopping the commune convinced the provinces that France could be politically moderate and socially conservative.
• Moderate republican leaders were able to win over the next generation by legalizing trade unions and expanding the colonial empire.
• School system was expanded and by 1866 free, secular education was available to all children.
• Even French Catholics, who were frustrated with the division of church and state, rallied to support the republic in the 1890s.
• Education was used as a state-building tool and could create future supporters of a republican France.
• There were still tensions between conservatives and liberals. These tensions resulted in the Dreyfus Affair. A Jewish captain in the French army was falsely accused of treason and the case split France apart, with conservative nationalists and Catholics on one side and republican liberals on the other.
• This renewed fighting between France and the Catholic Church. By 1905 France had severed all ties with the Church, which led to increased secularism in schools and life.
• As in the German Empire, socialist movements and political divides threatened the stability of the Third Republic of France; however, the leaders of France were not as successful at using these movements to their advantage and tensions remained.

Great Britain and Ireland

• During the late nineteenth century, Britain was able to transform their government from classical liberalism to full-fledged democracy with few problems. Prime Minister Disraeli extended the vote to almost every adult male by 1884. 

"A Leap in the Dark"
Disraeli did not know what the ramifications of extending the vote would be and he is pictured here as leading Britannia into the unknown.
• As the House of Commons moved towards democracy, the House of Lords attempted to stop these changes. The conservative House of Lords vetoed several attempts to create social welfare services and legalized labor unions.  Eventually, they were forced to yield to popular democracy after being threatened by the king. The People's Budget was ultimately passed, raising taxes on the rich and providing health insurance and pensions to the masses.
• Just before WWI, Ireland caused a lot of issues for Great Britain. Radical "Fenians," who strongly opposed British rule, began violent campaigns against the British. Eventually Britain granted rights for peasants and ended the privileges of the Anglican Church. The issue of self-government in Ireland remained.
• Ulster Protestants refused to accept home rule by mostly-Catholic Ireland. They raised an army of over one hundred thousand volunteers and were able to delay the question of Irish home rule until after WWI was over. This issue exemplified the power of national feeling in the 19th century. If governments were not able to use the nationalist movements to their advantage, they could not win popular support.

Austro-Hungarian Empire

• In 1867, Austria was ruled by a dual monarchy comprised of the Austrian Empire and the Hungarian Empire.
• The issue of ethnic minorities caused a lot of national problems. Franz Joseph, the emperor, attempted to centralize the state an culture but struggled due to the various cultures and the stark division between the Magyar Hungarians and the rest of Austria (which was also divided ethnically and culturally).
• In Austria, Germans only comprised 1/3 of the population. They viewed the other ethnicities as a threat to their traditional power. Conservatives and socialists attempted to focus on economic issues and ignored the problem of race and language. State legislature could not decide on what to do, so Austria was ruled by decree.
• Nationalism in the Austro-Hungarian Empire ultimately hurt them. While other European countries were able to use nationalism to their advantage, Austro-Hungary was too divided

• 2/6 Class
• Russia
• Nicholas I 
•   Contemporary was metternich
•   Both dealt with subject nationalities
•   No one wanted to give up their culture
• Metternich (very conservative) was the main guy before 1848
•   After 1848 more people become important
•   He is a contemporary of Nicholas I
• Both dealt with subject nationalities
• 
• Alexander II
• Contemporary
• Was assassinated by the People’s Will 
•   Not peasant revolutionaries but the upper class who didn’t like the Tzar
•   Mad because he emancipated the serfs
•   Criticized because he went too far 
•   Liberal radical group
•      Industrialized Russia by building railroads
•      October Manifesto granted full civil right
•      Duma
•      Tsar takes back this power in the Fundamental Laws
• Alexander III
• When Alexander II was assassinated, things stopped
•   Liberalism stopped → no more reforms
•   Modernization and industrialization continued 
•   Social reforms were replaced with economic reforms 
• Nicholas II
• More like Alexander III → against liberal reform
•   Promised to make these reforms but then goes back on it 
•   If he had kept his promise, he would have been like Alexander II (ceding absolute power) 
• Vladimir Lenin
• Start of the Soviet Union
•   He placed Marxist ideas
• Germany
•   Bismarck’s biggest problems
•   The Catholic Church
•    Kulturkampf
• The pope took power from Bismarck
• Think catholic not German
• Attacked the church because he wanted to make sure the pope wouldn’t take his power
• Bismarck sides with the catholics 
• German socialist democratic party Socialists
• Bismarck created social welfare programs to gain popular support
• Pg 773-
• The common themes within that framework were the emergence of mass politics and growing popular loyalty towards the nation
• Mass politics- political parties, the people’s support wasn’t needed before 
• Previously there were no elections so the people’s support wasn’t needed